Life Area or Domain

Protective Factors

Risk Factors

Individual

Positive personal characteristics, including social skills and social responsiveness; cooperation; emotional stability; positive sense of self; flexibility; problem-solving skills; and low levels of defensiveness

Bonding to societal institutions and values, including attachment to parents and extended family; commitment to school; regular involvement with religious institutions; and belief in society’s values

Social and emotional competence, including good communication skills; responsiveness; empathy; caring’ sense of humor; inclination toward pro-social behavior; problem-solving skills; sense of autonomy; sense of purpose and of the future (e.g., goal-directed); and self-discipline

Inadequate life skills

Lack of self-control, assertiveness, and peer-refusal skills

Low self-esteem and self-confidence

Emotional and psychological problems

Favorable attitudes toward substance use

Rejection of commonly held values and religion

School failure

Lack of school bonding

Early antisocial behavior, such as lying; stealing; and aggression, particularly in boys, often combined with shyness or hyperactivity

Family

Positive bonding among family members

Parenting that includes high levels of warmth and avoidance of severe criticism; a sense of basic trust; high parental expectations that are clear and consistent, encouraging of children’s participation in family decisions and assignment of responsibilities

An emotional supportive parental/family milieu, including parental attention to children’s interests; orderly and structured parent-child relationships; and parent involvement in homework and school-related activities

Family conflict and domestic violence

Family disorganization

Lack of family cohesion

Social isolation of family

Heightened family stress

Family attitudes favorable to drug use

Ambiguous, lax or inconsistent rules and sanctions regarding substance use

Poor child  supervision and discipline

Unrealistic expectations for development

Life Area or Domain

Protective Factors

Risk Factors

Peer

Association with peers who are involved in school, recreation, service, religion, or other organized activities

Association with delinquent peers who use or value dangerous substances

Association with peers who reject mainstream activities or pursuits

Susceptibility to negative peer pressure

Strong external locus of control

School

Caring and support, sense of “community” in classroom and school

High expectations from school personnel

Clear standards and rules for appropriate behavior

Youth participation, involvement, and responsibility in school tasks and decisions

Ambiguous, lax, or inconsistent rules and sanctions regarding drug use and student conduct

Favorable staff and student attitudes toward substance use

Harsh or arbitrary student management practices

Availability of dangerous substances on school premises

General lack of school bonding by the student body

Community

Caring and support

High expectations of youth

Opportunities for youth participation in community activities

Community disorganization

Lack of community bonding

Community attitudes favorable to drug use

Ready availability of dangerous substances

General lack of cultural pride

Inadequate youth services and opportunities for pro-social involvement

Society

Media literacy (resistance to pro-use messages)

Decreased accessibility to alcohol, tobacco and other drugs

Increased pricing through taxation

Raised purchasing age and enforcement

Stricter driving-while-under-the influence laws

 Impoverishment

 Unemployment and underemployment

 Discrimination

 Pro-drug-use messages in the media